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Or neuron differentiation, trophic support, neuroregeneration* Correspondence: jendel@biomed.cas.cz Equal contributors 1 Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic 2 Department of Neuroscience, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic Full list of author information is available at the end of the article?2013 Amemori et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.Amemori et al. Stem Cell Research Therapy 2013, 4:68 http://stemcellres.com/content/4/3/Page 2 ofIntroduction Spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a very complex medical and psychological challenge, both for patients and their relatives and for the involved physicians. The unprecedented success of SCI research in the past few years has resulted in significant advances [1,2]; nevertheless, clinical treatment is still limited to the reduction of pain and swelling and the prevention of secondary injury by the administration of antiinflammatory drugs. Pathologic changes after SCI are complex and include the interruption of ascending and descending pathways, the loss of neurons and glial cells, inflammation, scar formation, and demyelination [3,4]. These events suggest a number of different steps required for SCI repair, such as minimizing progressive cell death and blocking scar formation; replacing lost cells and stimulating the injured cord to produce new cells; reconnecting injured nerve fibers with their original targets or with substitute targets; and maximizing the function of the spared nerve fibers by repairing their myelin sheaths. Because of their specific properties, stem cells may eventually play a role in many or all of these processes. Therefore, celltransplantation therapies have become a major focus in preclinical research as a promising strategy for the treatment of SCI [5]. Among the many different types of stem cells available today, neural stem and progenitor cells (NSCs) are particularly useful tools for transplantation therapy, because they have the ability to provide an unlimited source of neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes for the treatment of neurologic and/or neurodegenerative disorders via cell replacement [6]. NSCs can be isolated from the developing or adult central nervous system and can be safely expanded in chemically defined culture media for an extended period. They have immunomodulatory properties [7] and also Capivasertib are able to produce a number of growth factors that have strong neurotrophic and neuroregenerative effects [8]. In addition, NSCs are more kindred to nervous tissue in comparison to other stem cell types (for example, mesenchymal stem cells [9-11] and olfactory ensheathing cells [12]). A positive effect of transplanted NSCs on functional outcome after SCI was shown in several experiments using animal models [13-16]. Moreover, from a clinical perspective, it is important that implanted human NSCs have been shown to PubMed ID:https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17139194 give rise to mature neurons and oligodendrocytes and that they have promoted functional recovery not only in SCI models in small animals, but also in injured dogs [17]. The current study addresses a previously unexplored issue in stem cell transplantation research for spinal cord r.